‘Everyday knowledge’: A mixed-methods study using factor analysis and narrative approaches to explore social worker’s knowledge

Steve J Hothersall

doi:10.1921/swssr.v19i2.1071

Authors

Steve J Hothersall Edge Hill University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1921/swssr.v19i2.1071

Abstract

This study explored how social workers defined, produced, used, developed and disseminated knowledge within their everyday practice. A mixed-methods approach utilised Q-factor/Centroid (Exploratory) Factor Analysis (CFA) (n=37) and post-Q-sort semi-structured interviews to identify latent variables relating to perceptions and practices concerning ‘knowledge work’. Results suggest that the type of practice social workers were engaged in, the context and nature of the practice situation itself and expectations of employing organisations had a significant influence on practitioner knowledge and the way research findings were utilised. Conclusions suggest that the range of knowledge currently seen to be required in order to inform social worker practice is highly influenced by systemic factors, and the profession needs to reconsider its stance regarding the forms and types of knowledge deemed to be acceptable in and for practice. The findings have significant implications for both qualifying education and post-qualifying training and development. Original data is available for inspection upon written request to the author.

Keywords: practice-based knowledge; mixed methods; epistemology; pragmatism.

Author Biography

Steve J Hothersall, Edge Hill University

Head of Social Work

References

Alley, S., Jackson, S.F and Shakya, Y.B (2015): Reflexivity: A Methodological Tool in the Knowledge translation Process? Health Promotion Practice DOI: 10.1177/1524839914568344

Almeder, R (1986): A Definition of Pragmatism. History of Philosophy Quarterly 3, 79-87

Almeder, R (2007): Pragmatism and Philosophy of Science: A Critical Survey. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 21, 171-195

Armstrong, R., Waters, E., Dobbins, M., Anderson, L., Moore, L., Petticrew, M., Clark, R., Pettman, T.L., Burns, C., Moodie, M., Conning, R and Swinburn, B (2013): Knowledge Translation Strategies to Improve the Use of Evidence in Public Health Decision Making in Local Government: Intervention, Design and Implementation Plan. Implementation Science, 8, 121

Avby, G., Nilsen, P and Dahlgren, M.A (2014): Ways of Understanding Evidence-Based Practice: A Qualitative Study. British Journal of Social Work, 44, 1366-1383

Baars, T (2010): Experiential Science: Towards an Integration of Implicit and reflected Practitioner-Expert Knowledge in the Scientific Development of Organic Farming. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. DOI 10.1007/s10806-010-9281-3

Bamford, T (2015): A Contemporary History of Social Work: Learning from the Past. Bristol: Policy Press

Beddoe, L (2011): Investing in the Future: Social Workers Talk about Research. British Journal of Social Work, 41, 557-575

Braedley, S and Luxton, M (Eds) (2010): Neoliberalism and Everyday Life. London. McGill-Queen’s University Press

Brandom, R (2001): Articulating Reasons. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press

Brekke, J.S (2012): Shaping a Science of Social Work. Research on Social Work Practice 22, 455-464

Breckon, J. and Hay, J. (2015): Knowing how to protect: Using research evidence to prevent harm to children. London: Alliance for Useful Evidence

Brier, S (2000): Trans-Scientific Frameworks of Knowing: Complementarity Views of the Different Types of Human Knowledge. Systems Research and Behavioural Science, 17, 433-458

Brown, S.R (1980): Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q Methodology in Political Science. New Haven: Yale University Press

Calvert-Minor, C (2011): Epistemological Communities and the Problem of Epistemic Agency. Social Epistemology, 25, 341-360

Carew, R (1979): The Place of Knowledge in Social Work Activity. British Journal of Social Work, 9, 349-364

Chambers, D.E (1975): Three Principles of a Knowledge-Guided Social Work Practice. Journal of Social Welfare, 11, 211-233

Comesaña, J (2008): Epistemic Pragmatism: An Argument Against Moderation. Midwest Epistemology Forum. Lincoln, US. University of Nebraska

Croisdale-Appleby, D (2014): Re-Visioning Social Work Education. London: Department of Health

Cunningham, I., and James, P. (2014): Public Service Outsourcing and its Employment Implications in an Era of Austerity: The Case of British Social Care. Competition and Change 18. 1. 1-19

Curnock, K and Hardiker, P (1979): Towards Practice Theory: Skills and Methods in Social Assessments. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul

Department for Education (2014): Knowledge and Skills for Child and Family Social Work. London: Department for Education

Department for Education (2016): Children’s Social Care Reform: A Vision for Change. London: Department for Education

Department of Health (2015): Knowledge and Skills Statement for Social Workers in Adult Services. London: Department of Health

Deverell, A.C. and Burnett, S. (2012): Need-to-Know Cultures: An Investigation into Intra-Organisational and Extra-Organisational Knowledge Sharing Cultures in Local Government in the UK. Knowledge and Process Management, 19, 131–141

Dewey, J (1929): The Quest for Certainty. New York, US. Minton, Balch and Company

Dewey, J (1938): Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. New York, US. Henry Holt

Drury-Hudson, J (1997): A Model of Professional Knowledge for Social Work Practice. Australian Social Work, 50, 35-44

Edwards, A and Daniels, H (2012): The Knowledge that Matters in Professional Practices. Journal of Education and Work 25, 1, 39-58

Epstein, I., Fisher, M., Julkunen, I., Uggerhoj, L., Austin, M. J., and Sim, T. (2015). The New York statement on the evolving definition of practice research designed for continuing dialogue: A bulletin from the 3rd International Conference on Practice Research (2014). Research on Social Work Practice, 25, 711-714

Evans, T and Hardy, M (with Shaw, I) (2010): Evidence and Knowledge for Practice. Bristol: Polity Press

Fantl, J and McGrath, M (2009): Knowledge in an Uncertain World. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Feldman, S., and Johnston, C. (2014). Understanding the determinants of political ideology: Implications of structural complexity. Political Psychology, 35, 337-358

Fieser, J (Ed) (2000): Scottish Common-Sense Philosophy: Sources and Origins. (Volume 5) University of Tennessee at Martin, US. Thoemmes Press

Fish, S (1989): Doing What Comes Naturally: Change, Rhetoric, and the Practice of Theory in Literary and Legal Studies. Oxford: Clarendon Press

Flyvbjerg, B (2001): Making Social Science Matter: Why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Fook, J., d’Avray, L., Norrie, C., Psoinos, M., Lamb, B., and Ross, F. (2013). Taking the long view: Exploring the development of interprofessional education. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 27, 286-291

Foucault, M (1974): The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Tavistock

Franklin, DL (1986): Mary Richmond and Jane Addams: From Moral certainty to Rational Inquiry in Social Work Practice. Practice 60, 504-525

Gambrill, E (2011): Evidence-Based Practice and the Ethics of Discretion, Journal of Social Work, 11, 26-48

Gehlert, S (2015): Social Work and Science. Research on Social Work Practice DOI: 10.1177/1049731515570138

Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P and Trow, M (1994): The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and research in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage

Gibbons, M (2000): Context-Sensitive Science: Mode 2 Society and the Emergence of Context-Sensitive science. Science and Public Policy, 27, 159-163

Gillberg, C., and Vo, L. C. (2014): Contributions from Pragmatist Perspectives Towards an Understanding of Knowledge and Learning in Organisations. Philosophy of Management, 13, 33-51

Goldenberg, M.J (2009): Iconoclast or Creed? Objectivism, Pragmatism and the Hierarchy of Evidence. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 52, 168-87

Goldstein, RN (2011): Inference to the best explanation [online] New York. Edge World Question Centre. Edge Foundation Inc. Available from http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_3.html#goldstein

Göppner, H.J and Hämäläinen, J (2007): Developing a Science of Social Work. Journal of Social Work, 7, 269-87

Grace, C. and Wilkinson, P. (1978): Negotiating the Law: Social Work and Legal Services. London: RKP

Gray, M., Joy, E., Plath, D., and Webb, S. A. (2012): Implementing evidence-based practice: A review of the empirical research literature. Research on Social Work Practice, 23, 157-166

Gray, M., Joy, E., Plath, D., and Webb, S. A. (2013): What Supports and Impedes Evidence-Based Practice Implementation? A Survey of Australian Social Workers. British Journal of Social Work DOI: 10.1093/bjsw/bct123

Gray, M and Schubert, L (2013): Knowing What We Know About Knowledge in Social Work: The Search for a Comprehensive Model of Knowledge Production. International Journal of Social Welfare, 22, 334-346

Gray, L., Sharland, E., Heinsch, M and Schubert, L (2014): Connecting Research to Action: Perspectives on Research Utilisation. British Journal of Social Work DOI: 10.1093/bjsw/bcu089

Gray, M and Webb, S (2013): The New Politics of Social Work. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Grimwood, T (2016): Key Debates in Social Work and Philosophy. Abingdon: Routledge

Haig, B (2005): Exploratory Factor Analysis, Theory Generation and Scientific Method. Multivariate Behavioural Research, 40, 303-329

Haig, B (2008): Scientific Method, Abduction and Clinical Reasoning. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64, 1013-1018

Haig, B (2012): From Construct Validity to Theory Validation. Measurement, 10, 59-62

Hammersley, M (2000): The Relevance of Qualitative Research. Oxford Review of Education, 26, 393-405

Hardy, M (2016): ‘I know what I like and I like what I know’: Epistemology in practice and theory and practice again’. Qualitative Social Work, 15, 5-6, 762-778

Harrikari, T., Rauhaka, P-L and Virokannas, E (Eds) (2014): Social Change and Social Work: The Changing Societal Conditions of Social Work in Time and Place. Abingdon: Routledge

Hessels, L. K., and Van Lente, H. (2008). Re-thinking new knowledge production: A literature review and a research agenda. Research policy, 37, 740-760

Høgsbro, K (2015): Evidence and Research Designs in Applied Sociology and Social Work Research. Nordic Social Work Research, 5, Supp1, 56-70

Hood, R. (2012). A critical realist model of complexity for interprofessional working. Journal of interprofessional care, 26, 1, 6-12

Hothersall, S.J (2016): Epistemology and social work: Integrating theory, research and practice through philosophical pragmatism. Social Work and Social Sciences Review, 18, 3, 33-67

Howe, D (1980): Inflated States and Empty Theories in Social Work. British Journal of Social Work, 10, 317-340

Howe, D (1996): Surface and Depth in Social Work Practice. in N. Parton (Ed) Social Theory, Social Change and Social Work London, UK. Routledge (pp77-97)

Høybye-Mortensen, M (2015): Decision-Making Tools and Their Influence on caseworkers’ Room for Discretion. British Journal of Social Work, 45, 600-615

HM Government (2016): Social Work Reform. House of Commons Education Committee Third Report HC201. London: HMSO

Hull SAPB (Hull Safeguarding Adults Partnership Board (2014): A Decade of Serious Case Reviews. Hull: HSAPB

Hume, D (1748/2008): An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford: Oxford University Press

International Federation of Social Workers (2014): Definition of Social Work [Online] Berne, Switzerland: International Federation of Social Workers. Available from: http://www.ifsw.org/f38000138.html

James, W (1907): Pragmatism. New York: Prometheus Books

James, W (1912): Essays in Radical Empiricism. New York: Dover

Jones, R (2014): The Story of baby P: Setting the Record Straight. Bristol: Policy Press

Jordan, B and Drakeford, M (2012): Social Work and Social Policy Under Austerity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Julkunen, I., Austin, M. J., Fisher, M., & Uggerhøj, L. (2014). Helsinki Statement on Social Work Practice Research, Nordic Social Work Research, 4 (Suppl. 1), 7-13. doi:10.1080/2156857X.2014.981426

Julkunen, I & Karvinen-Niinikoski, S: (2014) Editorial, Nordic Social Work Research, 4:sup1, 1-6, DOI: 10.1080/2156857X.2014.985460

Kakavelakis, K (2010): A Relational Approach to Understanding Knowing in Communities of Practice. Knowledge and Process Management, 17, 68-79

Karseth, B and Nerland, M (2007): Building Professionalism in a Knowledge Society: Examining Discourses of Knowledge in Four Professional Associations. Journal of Education and Work, 20, 335-355

Katz, F.E (1969): Nurses in A. Etzioni (Ed) The Semi-Professions and their Organization: Teachers, Nurses and Social Workers pp54-81. New York: Free Press

Kavanagh, D (2013): Problematizing Practice: MacIntyre and Management, Organization, 20, 1, 103-115

Kempson, R (1975): Presupposition and the Delimitation of Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kinsella, E.A and Pitman, A (Eds) (2012): Phronesis as Professional Knowledge: Practical Wisdom in the Professions. Rotterdam: Sense

Kirk, S and Reid, W.J (2002): Science and Social Work. New York: Columbia University Press

Kivinen, O and Piiroinen, T (2004): The Relevance of Ontological Commitments in Social Sciences: realist and Pragmatist Viewpoints, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 34, 3, 231-248

Knight, K (2007): Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. Cambridge: Polity Press

Knorr-Cetina, K. (1999): Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Koons, J.R (2009): Pragmatic Reasons: A Defense of Morality and Epistemology. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Kothari, A., Rudman, D., Dobbins, M., Rouse, M., Sibbald, S., and Edwards, N (2012): The use of tacit and explicit knowledge in public health: a qualitative study. Implementation Science, 7, 20

LeCroy C.W (2010): Knowledge building and social work research: A critical perspective. Research on Social Work Practice, 20, 3, 321-324

Lipton, P (2004): Inference to the Best Explanation (2nd ed). Abingdon: Routledge

Lundestad, E (2008): The necessity of Pragmatism: Overcoming the Stalemate of Common-Sense, The Journal of Scottish Philosophy, 6(2), 175-187

Luitgarden, van de, G.M.J (2009): Evidence-Based Practice in Social Work: Lessons from Judgement and Decision-Making Theory. British Journal of Social Work, 39, 243-260

Macdonald, G and Sheldon, B (1998): Changing One’s Mind: The Final Frontier? Issues in Social Work Education, 18, 3-26

Mäntysaari, M (2005): Realism as a Foundation for Social Work Knowledge, Qualitative Social Work, 4, 1, 87-98

Massaro, M., Dumay, J., and Garlatti, A. (2015): Public Sector Knowledge Management: A Structured Literature Review. Journal of Knowledge Management 19, pre-print

Meijers, J. M.M., Janssen, M. A.P., Cummings, G. G., Wallin, L., Estabrooks, C. A. and Y.G. Halfens, R. (2006): Assessing the relationships between contextual factors and research utilization in nursing: systematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 55, 622–635

Melnyk, B. M., and Newhouse, R. (2014). Evidence-based Practice Versus Evidence-informed Practice: A Debate That Could Stall Forward Momentum in Improving Healthcare Quality, Safety, Patient Outcomes, and Costs. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 11, 347-349

Mullen, E.J., Bledsoe, S.E and Bellamy, J.L (2007): Implementing Evidence-Based Practice. Research on Social Work Practice, 18, 325-338

Narey, M (2014): Making the Education of Social Workers Consistently Effective. London: Department for Education

Nerland, M and Karseth, B (2015): The Knowledge Work of Professional Associations: Approaches to Standardisation and Forms of Legitimation, Journal of Education and Work, 28, 1, 1-23

Nevo, I and Slonim-Nevo, V (2011): The Myth of Evidence-Based Practice: Towards Evidence-Informed Practice. British Journal of Social Work, 41, 1176-1197

Noordegraaf, M and Abma, T (2003): Management by Measurement? Public Management Practice Amidst Ambiguity. Public Administration, 81, 853-871

Ofsted (2010): Learning Lessons from Serious Case Reviews 2009-2010. Manchester: Ofsted

Orlikowski, W (2002): Knowing in Practice: Enacting a Collective Capability in Distributed Organizing. Organization Science, 13, 3, 249-273

Orlikowski, W (2006): Material Knowing: The Scaffolding of Human Knowledgeability. European Journal of Information Systems, 15, 460-466

Örtenblad, A (2001): On Differences between Organizational Learning and Learning Organization. The Learning Organization, 8, 125-133

Parton, N (2008): Changes in the Form of Knowledge in Social Work: From the ‘social’ to the ‘informational’? British Journal of Social Work, 38, 253-269

Pawson, R., Boaz, A., Grayson, L., Long, A and Barnes, C (2003): Types and Quality of Knowledge in Social Care. London, UK. Social Care Institute for Excellence/Policy Press

Payne, M (2001): Knowledge Bases and Knowledge Biases in Social Work. Journal of Social Work, 1, 133-46

Peirce, C.S (1877): The Fixation of Belief. Popular Science Monthly, 12 [November], 1-15

Peirce, C.S (1903): Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard Lectures of Pragmatism. Albany, NY: SUNY Press

Peirce, C.S (1905): What Pragmatism Is. The Monist, 15, 161-181

Petch, A (2013): Delivering Integrated Support and Care. Glasgow: ADSW/IRISS

Petersén, A.C and Olsson, J.I (2014): Calling evidence-based practice into question: Acknowledging Phronetic Knowledge in Social Work. British Journal of Social Work DOI: bcu020

Philp, M (1979): Notes on the Form of Knowledge in Social Work. Sociological Review, 27, 83-111

Plath, D (2014): Implementing Evidence-based Practice: An Organisational Perspective’. British Journal of Social Work, 44, 905-923

Power, A. (2014): Personalisation and Austerity in the Crosshairs: Government Perspectives on the Remaking of Adult Social Care. Journal of Social Policy, 43, 829-846

Quine, W.V.O (1960): Word and Object. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press

Reid, T (1764/2000): An Inquiry into the Human Mind: On the Principles of Common Sense [Edited by D.R Brookes and K. Haakonssen]. Edinburgh, UK. Edinburgh University Press

Rescher, N (1994): A System of Pragmatic Idealism: Volume III – Metaphilosophical Inquiries. Princeton: Princeton University Press

Rescher, N (2008): Epistemic Pragmatism and Other Studies in the Theory of Knowledge. Berlin: Ontos

Rogowski, S (2010): Social Work: The Rise and Fall of a Profession? Bristol: Policy Press

Rosen, A (1994): Knowledge Use in Direct Practice. Social Service Review, 68, 561-577

Rosiek, J.L and Pratt, S (2013): Jane Addams as a Resource for Developing a Reflexively Realist Social Science Practice. Qualitative Inquiry, 19, 578-588

Rowley, J and Gibbs, P (2008): From learning Organization to Practically-Wise Organization. The Learning Organization, 15, 356-372

Rutter, D and Fisher, M (2013): Knowledge Transfer in Social Care and Social Work: Where’s the Problem? CanterburyPersonal Social Services Research Unit (PSSRU)

Salisbury Forum Group (2011): The Salisbury Statement, Social Work and Society, 9, 1

Satterfield, J. M., Spring, B., Brownson, R. C., Mullen, E. J., Newhouse, R. P., Walker, B. B., and Whitlock, E. P. (2009): Toward a transdisciplinary model of evidence-based practice. The Milbank Quarterly, 87, 368–390

Schmolck, P (2002): PQMethod (Version 2.20). [Available at www.schmolck.org/qmethod]

Sewpaul, V and and Hölschen, D (2004): Social Work in Times of Neoliberalism. Pretoria: Van Scheik

Shank, G (1998): The Extraordinary Ordinary Powers of Abductive Reasoning. Theory and Psychology, 8, 841-860

Shaw, I (2014): A Science of Social Work? A Response to John Brekke. Research on Social Work Practice, 24, 5, 524-526

Shaw, I (2016): Social Work Science. Columbia: Columbia University Press

Sheldon, B., & Macdonald, G. M. (1999). Research and practice in social care: Mind the gap. Exeter: University of Exeter, Centre for Evidence-Based Social Services

Sheldon, B. (2001). The validity of evidence-based practice in social work: A reply to Stephen Webb. The British Journal of Social Work, 31, 5, 801-809

Sheppard, M (1995): Social Work, Social Science and Practice Wisdom. British Journal of Social Work, 25, 265-294

Sheppard, M (1998): Practice Validity, Reflexivity and Knowledge for Social Work. British Journal of Social Work, 28, 763-81

Sheppard, M., and Ryan, K. (2003). Practitioners as rule using analysts: A further development of process knowledge in social work. British Journal of Social Work, 33, 157-176

Shotter, J and Tsoukas, H (2014a): Performing Phronesis: On the Way to Engaged Judgement. Management Learning, 45, 377-396

Shotter, J and Tsoukas, H (2014b): In Search of Phronesis: Leadership and the Art of Judgement. Academy of Management, Learning and Education, 13, 224-243

Skaerbaek, E (2010): Undressing the Emperor? On the Ethical Dilemmas of Hierarchical Knowledge’ . Journal of Interprofessional Care 24, 5, 579-586

Skills for Care (2015): The Social Work ASYE: Guidance for NQSWs Completing the ASYE in Adults and Child and Family Settings. Leeds: Skills for Care

Slater, T (2012): The Myth of Broken Britain: Welfare Reform and the Production of Ignorance. Antipode DOI: 10.111/anti.12002, 1-22

Spearman, C.E (1904): General Intelligence’: Objectively Determined and Measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293

Stephenson, W (1935): Technique of factor analysis. Nature, 136, 297

Stephenson, W (1936): The inverted factor technique. British Journal of Psychology, 26, 344-361

Stevenson, O (1971): Knowledge for Social Work. British Journal of Social Work, 1, 225-237

Tavory, I and Timmermans, S (2014): Abductive Analysis: Theorizing Qualitative Research. London: University of Chicago Press

Taylor, C and White, S (2001): Knowledge, Truth and Reflexivity: The Problem of Judgement in Social Work. Journal of Social Work, 1, 37-59

Toulmin, S (1958): The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

United Kingdom Supreme Court (2014): P v Cheshire West and Chester Council and P v Surrey County Council [2014] UKSC 19, [2014] AC 896

Vahid, H (2005): Epistemic Justification and the Skeptical Challenge. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Van De Ven, A and Johnson, P (2006): Knowledge for Theory and Practice. Academy of Management Review, 31, 802-821

Wang, C.L and Ahmed, P.K (2003): Organizational Learning: A Critical Review. The Learning Organization, 10, 8-17

Warner, J (2015): The Emotional Politics of Social Work and Child Protection. Bristol: Policy Press

Watts, S and Stenner, P (2012): Doing Q-Methodological Research: Theory, Method and Interpretation. London: Sage

Webb, S (2001): Some Considerations on the Validity of Evidence-Based Practice in Social Work. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 57-79

Weinberg, F.J (2015): Epistemological Beliefs and Knowledge Sharing in Work Teams. The Learning Organization, 22, 40-57

Wiley, J (2012): Theory and Practice in the Philosophy of David Hume. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Wittgenstein, L (1969): On Certainty. Trans. G.E.M Anscombe and G.H von Wright. Oxford: Blackwell

Witt-Hansen, J (1980): Filosofi: Videnskabernes historie i det 20 arhundrede. [Philosophy, Science and History in the 20th Century]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal

Yalcin, U (1992): Skeptical Arguments from Underdetermination. Philosophical Studies, 68, 1-34